Jason Morgan, an associate professor in The Faculty of Global Studies at Reitaku University, won the 7th Annual APA Japan Restoration Grand Prize in 2024 for his book, Why I Bow My Head at Yasukuni Jinja. An American who studied Japanese history, Morgan has spent one third of his life in Japan. Motoya Toshio spoke with Morgan about the inspiration behind this book, his passionate feelings about Japan, and other topics.
(M) Thank you for joining me on Big Talk today. Your essay, titled “National Isolation is Armed Neutrality,” won the Prize for Excellence in the Adult Division of the 17th Annual “True Interpretations of Modern History” Essay Contest. The award ceremony and party took place at the Meiji Kinenkan on December 6. What did you think of this event?
(N) Thank you so much for this award. I enjoyed speaking with other prize winners and receiving congratulations from attendees at the party, which reminded me how important it is to express oneself. Although Japan is a country with freedom of speech, there are many cases in which people are hindered from saying what they believe. It seems like mainstream historians are overly considerate of others’ views. I think the “True Interpretations of Modern History” Essay Contest and APA Japan Restoration Grand Prize are hugely important opportunities to promote true history, without worrying too much about other peoples’ feelings.
(M) I don’t think there are many prizes with such a high degree of freedom. Lots of people can read the winning essays in Apple Town magazine, which has a circulation of 100,000 copies and is available in all APA Hotel rooms.
(N) One of my acquaintances is a manager at an energy company. He emailed me the other day, saying he read my essay in the January issue of Apple Town while staying at an APA Hotel on a business trip. At the party, I spoke with Nakamura Toshiyuki, winner of the Grand Prize (Fuji Seiji Prize), as well as Jason Morgan, who was awarded the APA Japan Restoration Grand Prize. I got the sense that all our writings discuss the same theme: globalism versus the doctrine of putting our national interests first. We examine this topic from different angles; I focus on an era that inspires no antagonism from historians. Western influence reached Japan in the Sengoku (Warring States) period, which was the start of conflict between the doctrines of globalism and national interests, leading to tension that still continues today. Japan was able to eliminate this tension because it had a powerful military during the Sengoku period. Due to the character limit, my essay discussed the span of time from the Sengoku era to the Shimabara Rebellion in the early Edo period. However, I have also written about the period until the end of World War II, and my views on that conflict are similar to Nakamura’s.
(M) You clearly wrote that Japan could not have maintained national isolation without self-defense capabilities.
(N) Yes, the Sengoku period was during the worldwide Age of Discovery when the American continent was discovered. Spain and Portugal embarked on sea voyages and competed to establish colonies. Naturally, Japan was one potential target, but it was never the victim of a military invasion by a Western power. Japanese historical textbooks only discuss the results of this, without explaining why Japan wasn’t invaded by Spain, the strongest nation at that time.
(M) I’ve heard Sengoku Japan had more firearms than any other country. Was that one reason?
(N) That was part of it. I tried to research this topic in a quantitative fashion, just like one analyzes military balances today. I realized that Japanese historians refer solely to Japanese sources, without giving much consideration to what Western powers were thinking. That’s not sufficient, so I began reading European documents as well. There is a great deal of European historical research and papers on this topic.
(M) I imagine Western nations decided it would be too risky to invade Japan.
(N) That’s correct. For example, guns were mass produced in Sakai (Osaka) and other locations just five years after they first arrived at Tanegashima in 1543. Japanese firearms were extremely precise, and they were made from forged steel like katana swords. They also had sights, which Western guns lacked. Due to their poor accuracy, European guns were used for volley fire attacks by multiple soldiers shooting barrages of bullets. With a Japanese firearm, you could shoot an individual at a distance of 100 to 200 meters. In Europe, England was increasing its influence by manufacturing weapons from high-quality steel. The East India Company was proud of its guns, which they attempted to sell to Japanese traders. Japan didn’t want to buy these weapons made from low-grade steel. As you mentioned, Japan also possessed a large quantity of firearms. The king of England gathered 1,100 guns from across the country while planning to invade France. This was 20 years after the 1575 Battle of Nagashino, when the combined forces of Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu had 3,000 guns and Takeda Katsuyori’s army fought with 500 guns. Japan was an industrial leader at that time for mass producing firearms, although I don’t think contemporaries were entirely aware of that fact.
(M) How did Western powers take note of Japan’s capabilities?
(N) We can answer this question by referring to documents, including reports from missionaries to Japan and letters to the king of Spain from its governor-general in the Philippines. To invade East Asia, Spain traversed the Atlantic Ocean and then crossed the American continent. In contrast, Portugal went around the Cape of Good Hope. During this process, Spain established New Spain in present-day Mexico and stationed a viceroy in that colony. It used Mexico as a base to capture the Philippines, then built fortifications and sent in its governor-general. Spain carried out multiple invasions in Asia after that, including two unsuccessful forays into the Kingdom of Siam. It was thanks to Yamada Nagamasa that Siam maintained its independence. Due to his great deeds leading a unit of ronin (masterless samurai), Yamada is said to have earned the hand of the Siamese princess in marriage. Many ronin came to Asia near the end of the Sengoku period. The governor-general described the extreme difficulty of defending the Spanish fort from multiple attacks by Japanese ronin. Considering these fierce struggles against a handful of ronin, they thought the Philippines would be in great jeopardy if the two countries fell into a state of war and Japan sent an official army to Manila. Although Spain wanted the affluent nation of Japan, the governor-general told the king that it would be an impossible task to accomplish through armed might.
(M) That gave them a sense of Japan’s strength.
(N) In addition, Japan displayed a resolute stance towards foreign countries. One example is the 1596 San Felipe incident, when a Spanish galleon shipwrecked in Shikoku. Toyotomi Hideyoshi seized the cargo and was told by crewmembers that Spain was plotting to invade Japan. Based on this, Hideyoshi had 26 Christians executed by crucifixion, including four Spanish people. The governor-general demanded that Japan return the cargo and the remains of these Christians, but Hideyoshi refused, saying his actions were in line with Japanese law. To provide another example, Arima Harunobu was a samurai lord from the Hizen-Hinoe Domain during the time of Tokugawa Ieyasu. A “red seal” merchant ship was carrying a letter from Ieyasu to the Kingdom of Champa (Vietnam). When the ship stopped at the Portuguese territory of Macau, the Japanese crew got into an altercation with some locals. Several Japanese people were killed when the captain-major of Macau suppressed the brawl. The remaining members of the party reported to Arima after managing to return to Japan on the red seal ship. The captain-major sailed from Macau to Nagasaki the following year. Ieyasu summoned the captain-major to give an explanation of the incident. Fearing for his safety, the captain-major tried to flee Nagasaki. Ieyasu ordered the nearby five domains to besiege the ship. Because he felt this matter was his responsibility, Arima dispatched nine ships to surround the Portuguese vessel and attack it with fire. The captain-major set fire to the gunpowder storage, sinking the ship. One king ruled over Portugal and Spain at that time. The San Felipe incident and captain-major’s death provided sufficient cause for Spain to start a war with Japan. Because armed intervention would be extremely difficult in the powerful nation of Japan, the governor-general advised the king that their only choice was to bring Japan under control by preaching the gospel of Christianity. Hideyoshi and Ieyasu dealt firmly with these Western European countries, backed by strong military force.
(M) Another major factor was the samurai warriors who were in charge of both military and political affairs since the Kamakura Shogunate. They increased their armed forces during the conflicts of the Sengoku period, and also enhanced their capabilities through firearms.
(N) I agree. The governor-general wrote in his letters that the Manila fort was strong, but it had just 500 soldiers. He clearly stated that Manila could not withstand a full-on attack by Japan, which could immediately send about 10,000 soldiers by ship in approximately two weeks. It appears the governor-general thought Manila would be in great danger if it made any false moves. Afterwards, Japan came up with two plans to subjugate Luzon during the era of Tokugawa Iemitsu. This was because of Spain’s ceaseless efforts to smuggle missionaries into Japan and spread Christianity. Spain probably wanted to win over Japanese Christians and split apart the Tokugawa government from the inside. Japan thought its only option was to conquer Luzon. This island is home to Manila, which served as the base for missionary efforts. In 1630, Matsukura Shigemasa, lord of the Hizen-Shimabara Domain, told Iemitsu he would attack Manila in exchange for receiving Luzon as a reward. They did actually send scouts to Luzon, but Matsukura died soon after and the plan fizzled out. The shogunate came up with its own scheme to attack Luzon seven years later in 1637, negotiating with the Dutch about borrowing ships to transport soldiers. The Shimabara Rebellion broke out, possibly because Christians heard about this plan. These details are described in a report from the governor-general to the Spanish king.
(M) The Tokugawa Shogunate stepped up its Sakoku (isolationism) policy after the Shimabara Rebellion. Sakoku wasn’t merely an inward-facing defense effort; they came up with this measure after considering Japan’s foreign policy, including constructive policies. I think Western countries couldn’t invade Japan because they feared its military strength. A balance of power is important for preventing war, both today and in the past. Wars occur when this balance crumbles.
(N) That’s true. I think the balance of power was also affected by the arrival of the Black Ships in 1853, although I didn’t have enough space to cover this in my essay. Japan was closed to foreigners during the Edo period. Spain sent ships on fixed routes between Mexico and the Philippines while avoiding Japan entirely. Japan only engaged in trade with the Dutch – who promised never to do missionary activities – at Dejima, an island off Nagasaki. Western powers developed more advanced weapons as the Edo period drew to a close. Takashima Shuhan, who was born in Nagasaki, took notice of this trend. He procured and studied more than 200 guns and cannons via Dutch traders, along with information about how to use these weapons. He completed his own type of firearm in the 1830s, 20 years before the arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry. Japan’s artillery was not inferior to Western Europe at that time, but it did not have any steam engines. Heinrich Schliemann, the German man who discovered the ruins of Troy, wrote a journal about his trip to Japan in 1865. He praised Japan for its ability to build an advanced, civilized society and educational system that were superior to Europe and the United States, even without steam engines.
(M) It’s true that Japan lacked steam engines at the end of the Edo period. In other words, the Black Ships’ steam engines might have made a bigger impact than their cannons.
(N) Yes. Furthermore, Perry’s USS Susquehanna was a new ship launched in 1850. Steam engines came into practical use in the second half of the 1800s, and ships capable of ocean travel had existed since around the1840s. The Tokugawa Shogunate was shocked by the arrival of these Western ships. It encouraged all domains to build warships, and also did so itself. Japan had 15 warships in 1856, just three years after the first Black Ship. Tanaka Hisashige, the founder of Toshiba, was also known as “Karakuri Giemon.” He built a steam locomotive model in 1855. Chiyodagata, the first domestically manufactured steam warship, was completed by the shogunate in 1866. In the late Edo period, Japan possessed 35 steam warships with four or more cannons, along with roughly 300 sloops and other sailing warships.
(M) Japan rapidly built up its naval forces.
(N) In contrast, the American Navy had just eight steam warships at the time of Perry’s voyage. It was a major expedition to send half of them to Japan. The speed at which Japan strengthened its naval force demonstrates how well the shogunate’s political power functioned. England, the leader of the world, began taking a hardline stance that was particularly conspicuous during the Anglo-Satsuma War of 1863, one year after the Namamugi Incident when Shimazu Hisamitsu’s retainers killed and wounded three British citizens. The Tokugawa Shogunate paid reparations to England totaling 100,000 pounds. England was dissatisfied and sent seven warships to Kagoshima to demand further reparations along with the arrest and punishment of the perpetrators. War started when Shimazu refused these requests. The conflict ended in a tie. England’s flagship was severely damaged, and it suffered 63 causalities. At the end of the battle, it shot rockets at the area near the castle, and one tenth of the town was burnt down. This was reported in The Times, a British newspaper, and they were censured in Parliament for attacking innocent citizens. A bill was submitted to demote the commanding officer, although it was voted down. The New York Times published an article saying England was unable to defeat the Satsuma Domain, and that Japan was not worthy of disdain. That’s why Western nations avoided outright attacks on Japan, instead making active efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa Shogunate from the inside by working with other domains.
(M) In my opinion, one Japanese virtue is our ability to quickly unite together when crises occur. That’s how Japan repelled the Mongolian invasions. Another virtue is our good educational system that helped Japan avoid colonization and become a major economic power.
(N) Along with military strength, Western powers made decisions while considering Japan’s high level of education. The governor-general in the Philippines clearly reported that Japanese people were able to discuss and understand information just as well as Westerners. Merchants and warriors could read and write. This fundamental education also had impacts on military power. The Chinese Communist Army entered Manchukuo at the same time as the Soviet Union, during the closing days of World War II. People say the Chinese army gained strength at a rapid pace. One theory is that China was able to recruit soldiers who could calculate trajectories, since the citizens of Manchukuo were so well educated.
(M) That’s an interesting example. I think Japan built its educational system centered on the military clan society of the Edo period.
(N) There were over 200 domains in the late Edo period, of which just 20 did not have their own schools (called “han schools”). More than 60% of citizens were literate at that time, and the literacy rate was higher than 80% in the city of Edo. This was based on primary education at the han schools as well as 20,000 temple schools across Japan – more than the number of elementary schools today. That’s why highly ranked officials could post notices on bulletin boards for citizens to read. Rental libraries flourished, and many common people enjoyed novels like Tokaidochu Hizakurige and The Tale of Genji. Japan’s literacy rate was much higher than London or Paris at the time, something I’m sure Westerners found quite astounding.
(M) I imagine that education was not so readily available under Europe’s strict class system.
(N) That’s right. Edo Japan also became an economic power because it could produce gold and silver. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) did research comparing gross domestic products around the year 1700, during the early Edo period. Japan was number three after China and India. That economic strength is what allowed it to build warships later on.
(M) The Japan of today exists thanks to its military force, education, and economic power of the past.
(N) Yes, Japan defended its interests from the doctrine of globalism. This was true during the Sengoku and late Edo periods, but I think there are powers trying to threaten Japan in any way they can even now, in the contemporary era.
(M) Japan used to defend itself through force. Today, I am frightened by people who deny that Japan should be able to protect itself. They believe weapons lead to war, which simply isn’t true – military force deters conflicts and prevents war from breaking out. No one would attack a nation with a powerful military, as shown by what happened during the Sengoku period. That is why Japan must further improve its military strength. At the end of the interview, I always ask for a “word for the youth.” What is your message for the young people of today?
(N) To me, it seems like young people somehow lack energy. I believe this is partially due to their incorrect understanding of history. Our predecessors worked hard and displayed great strength from the Sengoku period to the Edo period, Meiji period, and World War II. School textbooks contain no information about this strength. We must teach them about our powerful nation so they can regain vitality and avoid being objects of contempt in other countries. That is why I share proof based on neutral documents as much as possible, including foreign sources. I hope young people will be energized by reading these works.
(M) Your essay serves as a message to young people. Thank you for joining me today.
(N) Thank you.
BIOGRAPHY
Naito Katsuhiko
March 1982: Graduated from the Applied Physics Course, School of Engineering, University of Tokyo. 1982: Environment Agency. 2001: Head, Agricultural Chemical Environmental Control Office, Water Environment Department, Environmental Management Office, Ministry of the Environment. 2002: Senior policy coordinator and Lifestyle Policy Office head, Climate Change Policy Division, Global Environment Bureau. 2007: Head, Office of Environmental Impact Assessment Review, Environmental Policy Bureau. 2008: Head, Environmental Transport Policy Division, Environment Management Bureau. 2011: Deputy mayor, Minato City, Tokyo. 2014 – 2023: Specially appointed professor, Kyoto University. 2024: Current position.